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Progressivism in Education

 

From:  http://lionsden.tec.selu.edu/~jmcintosh1/progres.html

 

The strongest and most evangelistic movement in American education is known as “progressive education” (Bode 9).  Progressive education was an attempt by educational reformers, psychologists, and philosophers to develop a school experience that would benefit the whole child's intellectual, social, artistic, and moral development (Berube 14).  Progressivism refers to a movement in education toward learning programs centered on the individuality of the students and carried out in informal classrooms. It can hardly be denied that the progressive movement has contributed great and lasting value to American education (Bode 3). The progressive theory incorporates many of the basic assumptions of the general philosophy of pragmatism. These thoughts will be expounded upon throughout this paper.

 

 John Dewey (1859-1953) was one of America’s most influential philosophers and educators (Gutek 302).  Dewey was known as the “Father of Progressive Education.”  He coined the phrases “learning by doing,” “the activity method,” “problem solving,” and “children's interests and needs” (qtd. in Gutek 318). He felt that learning involved the experience of dealing with everyday problems.  These problems or interactive episodes between the child and the environment would  cause thinking to occur and then learning would take place.  For Dewey, life itself was problematic.  He believed that by resolving these problems thinking would occur and human growth, or progress, would take place (Gutek 313).  Basically Dewey felt that learning must be related to the interests of the student and be connected to everyday life.  This writer is in agreement with Dewey that learning should be connected to everyday life and be relevant for the student.

 

This writer notes that there has been no other philosophy of education that has been so viciously attacked as progressivism.  Many people have misinterpreted its tenets and this has brought about misconceptions.  Other critics believe that progressivism has de-emphasized academic work and placed process above content.  As this writer has read numerous books on the philosophy of progressivism, she has learned to appreciate its beliefs.  This writer is a firm believer in placing the child at the center of education.  She believes that the classroom should be organized and constructed to fit the child and not necessarily the teacher.  This writer also believes that the student should have the opportunity to explore and discover answers and questions for himself with assistance from the teacher if needed.  This is a hard concept for many teachers in our educational systems of today.  This writer feels that teachers have to be ready to change their methods to meet the needs of todays' children.  From her educational experience, this writer concludes that too many teachers are using yesterdays' methods to teach todays' students.  In our society today, children come to school with many problems that need to be resolved before learning can even begin to take place.  The entire child, his mind, his body and his behavior, in and out of the classroom,  are factors which influence how he or she learns.

 

 This writer believes that instruction must inspire and motivate students to seek knowledge beyond the classroom and throughout their lives.  In his book, Experience and Education  John Dewey states,

 

There is no point in the philosophy of progressive education which is sounder than its emphasis upon the importance of the participation of the learner in the formation of the purposes which direct his activities in the learning process, just as there is no defect in traditional education greater than its failure to secure the active operation of the pupil in construction of the purposes involved in his studying. (77)

 

Education has changed throughout the years and will continue to change.  This writer feels that there are elements of many philosophical schools of thought and educational theories evident throughout education today.  Many progressive ideas are still prevalent in todays' schools. The depth of progressivism may have passed but its mark has been made on education everywhere.

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This writer feels that the common ground in education should be the emphasis placed on the student.  It is commendable that an educator would adapt concepts and ideas from various educational theories and philosophies and create her own personal thoughts and beliefs.  It is the belief of this writer that educators need to effectively develop their own ideas to use in their classrooms and to feel competent enough to do this.  Using a variety of methods derived from numerous philosophies can create an environment in which the child is the recipient of a well-rounded education.  This writer feels that teaching is not essentially performance, but an interactive practice that begins and ends with the student.  This writer also feels that a good educator is one who is willing to continue to learn and be open to change.  It is the belief of this writer that various elements of progressivism are very useful for teachers of today.
 

                                                                     Works Cited


Berube, Maurice  R.  American School Reform: Progressive, Equity, and Excellence. Connecticut:  Greenwood Press, 1994.

 

Bode, Boyd H.  Progressive Education at the Crossroads.  New York: Newsome and 
Company, 1938.

 

Dewey, John.  Experience and Education.   New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938.

 

Gutek, Gerald L.  Historical Philosophical Foundations of Education.  New Jersey: Merrill Prentiss Hall, 2001.

 

Neill, A. S. Summerhill.  New York: Hart Publishing Company, 1960.

 

Ozmon, H., &  Craver, S.  Philosophical Foundation of Education.  New Jersey:  
Prentice-Hall., 1981.

 

Ward, Florence Elizabeth.  The Montessori Method and The American School. New York: 
Arno Press & The New York Times, 1971.

 

Wingo, G. Max.  Philosophies of Education: An Introduction..  Massachusetts:  D. C. Heath and Company, 2000.

 

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From:  http://www.uvm.edu/~dewey/articles/proged.html

 

A Brief Overview of Progressive Education

 

During most of the twentieth century, the term "progressive education" has been used to describe ideas and practices that aim to make schools more effective agencies of a democratic society. Although there are numerous differences of style and emphasis among progressive educators, they share the conviction that democracy means active participation by all citizens in social, political and economic decisions that will affect their lives. The education of engaged citizens, according to this perspective, involves two essential elements: (1). Respect for diversity, meaning that each individual should be recognized for his or her own abilities, interests, ideas, needs, and cultural identity, and (2). the development of critical, socially engaged intelligence, which enables individuals to understand and participate effectively in the affairs of their community in a collaborative effort to achieve a common good. These elements of progressive education have been termed "child-centered" and "social reconstructionist" approaches, and while in extreme forms they have sometimes been separated, in the thought of John Dewey and other major theorists they are seen as being necessarily related to each other.

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These progressive principles have never been the predominant philosophy in American education. From their inception in the 1830s, state systems of common or public schooling have primarily attempted to achieve cultural uniformity, not diversity, and to educate dutiful, not critical citizens. Furthermore, schooling has been under constant pressure to support the ever-expanding industrial economy by establishing a competitive meritocracy and preparing workers for their vocational roles. The term "progressive" arose from a period (roughly 1890-1920) during which many Americans took a more careful look at the political and social effects of vast concentrations of corporate power and private wealth. 

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Today, scholars, educators and activists are rediscovering Dewey's work and exploring its relevance to a "postmodern" age, an age of global capitalism and breathtaking cultural change, and an age in which the ecological health of the planet itself is seriously threatened. We are finding that although Dewey wrote a century ago, his insights into democratic culture and meaningful education suggest hopeful alternatives to the regime of standardization and mechanization that more than ever dominate our schools.

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2.6.1 What is Progressivism?

        

Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952). The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement.

 

According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society’s identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy and for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realize their interests and potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social groups (Dewey, 1920).  He described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920):

 

  1. To be aware of the problem (e.g. plants need sunlight to grow)

  2. Define the problem (e.g. can plants grow without sunlight)

  3. Propose hypotheses to solve it

  4. Test the hypotheses

  5. Evaluate the best solution to the problem

 

 Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems; reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasize drill and practice, but should expose learners to activities that relate to the real life situations of students, emphasizing ‘Learning by doing’.

        

2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum

 

  • Progressivists emphasize the study of the natural and social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should center on the experiences, interests, and abilities of students.

 

  • Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and society.

 

  • Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.

 

  • Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.

 

  • Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognizes accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender. addition,

 

  • By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school.

From:  http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP4.html

 

 

HUMANISM IN EDUCATION

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari ,Ph.D. Pallavi Singh ,M.Ed. Principal Lecturer D.I.M.S. D.I.M.S. Meerut ,India Meerut, India

 

There are many theories in education that have been drawn from psychology some of these have to do with teaching and others with learning. Humanism is one theory that has been used in both teaching and learning. Humanism is a belief that that individuals control their own destinies through the application of their intelligence and learning.  Teachers who hold a more humanistic view of the purpose of education often experience stress because the meaning  they assign to education differs greatly from the meaning  assigned by society or their institution. It is clear in listening to the language of education that its primary focus is on knowledge and teaching rather than on the learner. Students are expected to conform to schools rather than schools serving the needs of students.

 

The Meaning and Definition of Humanism

 

The term "humanism" is ambiguous. Around 1806 humanismus was used to describe the classical curriculum offered by German schools, and by 1836"humanism" was borrowed into English in this sense. In 1856, the great German historian and philologist Georg Voigt used humanism to describe Renaissance Humanism, the movement that flourished in the Italian Renaissance to revive classical learning, This historical and literary use of the word "humanist" derives from the 15th century Italian term umanista, meaning a teacher or scholar of Classical Greek and Latin literature and the ethical philosophy behind it

 

Dictionary Meaning of Humanism

 

Humanism is:

 

“seeking, without religion, the best in, and for, human beings."

Chambers Pocket Dictionary 

 

 "...a non-religious philosophy, based on liberal human values."

Little Oxford Dictionary 

 

 "The rejection of religion in favor of the advancement of humanity by its own efforts."

Collins Concise Dictionary 

 

 "A system of thought that centers on humans and their values, capacities, and worth."

 American Heritage Dictionary.

 

 

Humanism in Education

 

The Humanism has brought great effect in various fields of education. The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the discipline and the system of education all were given new blood. Humanism in education dragged the education from the old traditions, idealism and the high and low tides to the real surface.

 

In the field of education and especially in society today, "humanistic education" is the subject of considerable interest and controversy. Many people of good will immediately react "for it" or "against it," depending on previous experience with the term...Actually, the term means many different things to different people. What follows is a very brie attempt by a number of educators to clarify the term "humanistic education" by describing what it is and what it is not...

 

Fundamental Principles of Education in Humanism.

 

Most educators who advocate humanistic education typically intend this approach to mean one or more of three things:

 

1.Humanistic education teaches a wide variety of skills which are needed to function in today’s world--basic skills such as reading, writing and computation, as well as skills in communicating, thinking, decision-making, problem-solving and knowing oneself.

 

2.  Humanistic education is a humane approach to education--one that helps students believe in themselves and their potential, that encourages compassion and understanding, that fosters self-respect and respect for others.

 

3. Humanistic education deals with basic human concerns --with the issues throughout history and today that are of concern to human beings trying to improve the quality of life--to pursue knowledge, to grow, to love, to find meaning for one's existence. According to Gage and Berliner (1991) some basic principles of the humanistic approach that were used to develop the objectives are:

 

  1. Students will learn best what they want and need to know. That is, when they have developed the skills of analyzing what is important to them and why as well as the skills of directing their behavior towards those wants and needs, they will learn more easily and quickly.

 

  1. Knowing how to learn is more important than acquiring a lot of knowledge.  In our present society where knowledge is changing rapidly, this view is shared by many educators, especially those from a cognitive perspective.

 

  1. Self-evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a student’s work.  The emphasis here is on internal development and self-regulation. While most educators would likely agree that this is important, they would also advocate a need to develop a student's ability to meet external expectations.

 

  1. Feelings are as important as facts. Much work from the humanistic view seems to validate this point and is one area where humanistically-oriented educators are making  significant contributions to our knowledge base.

 

  1. Students learn best in a non-threatening environment.  This is one area where humanistic educators have had an impact on current educational practice. The orientation espoused today is that the environment should by psychologically and emotionally, as well as physically, non-threatening

 

Humanism and Aims of Education

 

The “Epistemology” gives the clue to determining humanistic education aims.

 

Since reason or intellect is man’s noblest quality it behooves educators to concentrate their efforts on the development of intellectual power. It is true that noted humanists, such as Vives and Erasmus, mentioned character formation as a goal of education. Within the context of classroom instruction, however, moral education was definitely allotted a minor role. classroom activities were directed almost exclusively to the building of intellectual-verbal skills within the student. .

 

It seems, then, that for the humanist, the primary aim of the Education as distinct from the broad notion of education carried on in the home, church, and social institutions, was the cultivation of the intellect of the student The goal of education should be to foster students' desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own

 

As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education:

 

1.promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system);

2.develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems);

3. develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition);

4. curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems); and

5. an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system).

 

Humanism and Concept of teacher

 

The role of the teacher is important in successfully educating children. The teacher must capture the child’s interest and build on the natural motivation that exists. Teachers need to remember to vary their teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning style. Not all children learn at the same pace or are at the same point; therefore, the teacher must vary his/her style. knowledge should be organized and relate to current experiences Teacher is a facilitator; helper; partner; promotes, but does not direct learning, sets mood for learning, acts as a flexible resource for learners

 

There are a variety of ways teachers can implement the humanist view towards education. Some of these include:

  1.  Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks and activities whenever  possible.

  2. Help students learn to set realistic goals.

  3. Have students participate in group work, especially cooperative learning, in order to develop social and affective skills.

  4. Act as a facilitator for group discussions when appropriate.

  5. Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish to foster. Constantly work on becoming a better person and then share yourself with your students.  Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains:

 

Humanism and Curriculum

 

The humanist’s complete absorption in the classics had far-reaching effects on educational theory and practice. Literary style and eloquence (in Latin, of course) became the outward sign of the educated gentleman. The ³kitchen Latin´ of the medieval writer was ridiculed. The closer one came to perfect imitation of classical style, the nearer one approached intellectual perfection. Thus, the schools of the Renaissance and Reformation era became centers for linguistic training. There was no place for vocational or health education.

 

Thus, beyond the very rudimentary training given in basic skills, the curriculum of the times was almost exclusively made up of the study of Latin and Greek grammar and the classics. Mathematics, history and astronomy and a few other subjects were allotted very little school time. Vocational education was school function at all since it was given byte skilled tradesman as on the job training. .The Jesuits divide the curriculum into five levels or grades roughly equivalent to the junior and senior high school years in American education. The first level was devoted to study of elementary Greek and Latin grammar and supplemented by easy readings from Latin literature. Intermediate grammar was taught at the second level. More difficult selections such as Aesop’s Fables in Greek, and Cicero, Caesar, and Ovid in Latin made up the reading lists. The third level covered advanced grammar and composition using more difficult selections from the classics as models. At the fourth level the study of rhetoric was introduced along with a complete review of grammar and syntax to assure their mastery. At the time the student was expected to be able to handle the most difficult pagan and Christian classics with relative ease. The highest (fifth ) level in the course of studies was intended to produce perfect classical style in speaking a writing Latin. The measure of the student’s success in this endeavor was the imitation of Cicero’s style. The classical literature studied was chose for its lofty style and beauty

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The classical part of the curriculum made up at least two-thirds or the program. As we mentioned in the section on ³Methodology,´ history, philosophy, and mythology were normally treated in the context of the classical literature. Religion was taught as a separate subject. Physical education was extracurricular and usually part of organized sport activates. Attendance at Mass and devotional exercises were required at boarding schools and sometimes of day students. The intellectualistic orientation of this humanistic curriculum is obvious. These schools were no place for ³intellectual lightweights.´ Satisfactory completion of this course of studies opened the door to the universities and to positions of leadership in the government. Any student whose mind had been disciplined by the classical curriculum was intellectually prepared for the challenges of statesmanship an responsibilities of the learner professions.

 

Humanism and achievement Evaluation

 

Very vigorous oral and written exams were administered to determine whether the student should pass on to the next level. For these tests the student was expected to know all the vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and literary selections of each level

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But now the Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not for personal satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a student's ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student.

 

Humanism and Concept of Student

 

Learner is highly motivated and self-directed; assumes responsibility for learning and self-development

He has continuity formal structure antecedents in the past and a yearning toward the future. His experience has some continuity throughout changing events and places and in order to explain this we must recognize that the self is a common factor in all of these experiences. The self has form as well as continuity. The learner possess a unique selfhood, self-realization supplements freedom as such with value concerns. Freedom does not carry built-in guarantees that it will be turned to good ends. In order to be freedom it must be free to make us miserable. The how of choosing, as well as the what which is chosen is a necessary ingredient of the good life.

The student is an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve its problems. He learns as he experiences; as he dose and as he undergoes. As a thinking organism his experiences, and his reflections upon those experiences become a part of him determining his likes, dislikes, and the future direction of his learning. The Humanist views the student as a whole organism constantly interacting with the environment

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 ³Humanism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these cannot be overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regarding at the time of planning education. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. Child has to be given as much freedom as possible. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts, The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning.´

 

 

 

The reformers maintained that education was a state function. Thus, one finds the first completely independent public school system in the Protestant district of Wurttemberg, Germany about the middle of the sixteenth century. The Renaissance and Reformation, then, again appeared to serve as the transitional stage between church control of education to the acceptance of the state (local, state-wide, or national) as the primary educational agency. The recent break down of the family in complex twentieth-century industrial society has involve the state in educational policy-making to such an extent that the role of the family in such matters had been almost totally eclipsed

 

Critical Appraisal of Humanism

 

Humanism is often depicted as denying spiritual values and is accordingly "represented as discarding morality, and preaching what is reproachfully described as the principle of 'good and no conscience”. However, some scholars believe, however, that this is a misunderstanding of the Humanism position since "no serious thinker could have included such a teaching”. Humanism believes not in the notion of stringent philosophy,but in liberal beliefs. Hence, they refute most of the already-established rules in the context of philosophy.  Another criticism often leveled at the Humanism movement is that it is essentially anti-intellectual. While this is perhaps an overstatement, it is true that the main area of concern for Humanists is the marketplace of daily life. Thus, those philosophies oriented toward a rather rationalistic a priori type of thought will find the Humanists empirical and anti-intellectual. The weakest points in the Humanist’s chain of thought, and the one that has probably subjected the Humanists to more valid and invalid criticism than any other is their theory of truth. If truth is seen as constantly being changed and tested, rather than as a stable body of knowledge, the whole stability of the universe is previous experience, which has been oriented toward finding and cataloging such truths, will go for naught. All other major philosophical systems are concerned with the nature of truth, and historically the vast majority have found a core of stable, unchanging, absolute values on which they could rely. The very fact that Humanism challenges the existence of this core  makes it, for many, a dangerous and radical philosophy

 

Merits of Humanism

 

Humanistic education is essential for preparing young people to be citizens in a democracy. If democracy is to work, its citizens must be educated. They must know how to gather information, distinguish fact from opinion, analyze propaganda, understand many different viewpoints, understand justice, think for themselves, communicate their opinions clearly, and work with others for the common good. These are among the most important skills that humanistic education seeks to teach our youth.

 

Humanistic education enhances the teaching of the basics.

 

Many of the major books and articles on humanistic education show teachers how to do a more effective job of teaching reading, writing, math, social studies, etc. Many of the best traditional-subject-matter teachers integrate humanistic education methods and materials into their basic curriculum. Rather than ignoring the basics, humanistic educators seek to expand our concept of what basic education is, saying that basic skills for surviving in today's world go beyond reading, writing, computation, and vocational skills and include other skills for communicating, problem-solving and decision-making.

 

Humanistic education is not psychotherapy.

 

It is not the goal of humanistic education to help students overcome deep-seated emotional problems. Rather, humanistic education seeks to help students to lean useful skills for living and to deepen their understanding of issues relevant to their academic and social development. Teachers do not need to be trained psychologists to conduct humanistic education activities. They do require sensitivity to students, classroom management skills, and the ability to conduct a class discussion. These skills are within the grasp of all good teachers.

 

Humanistic education is supported by years of research and experience.

 

One of the strongest reasons for supporting humanistic education is that, when done effectively, students learn! Considerable evidence shows that cooperative learning structures higher self-concepts, and the student's motivation and interest in learning all are related to greater academic achievement. Studies also show that humanistic education can lead to fewer discipline problems, less vandalism and reduced use of illegal drugs...Such research findings do not prove that particular humanistic education methods should be used in all situation..

 

Humanistic education encourages parent involvement in the schools

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What parent does  not sometimes wish his or her children would listen more respectfully, choose less impulsively, calm down when overexcited, learn to be assertive without being aggressive, or make better use of their time? Many humanistic education methods teach students how to do these things.. Several humanistic education approaches teach students to relax and control their nervous energy and to plan and take more responsibility for their time.

 

Humanistic educators believe that schools have a role to play in the "values education" of students.

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While the home and religion have the major responsibility in the value development and moral development of children, the school also has a legitimate role. Few parents have ever questioned the school's role in encouraging the values of punctuality, fairness, health, courtesy, respect for property, neatness and the like. Humanistic educators believe schools also should encourage the democratic and humanitarian values of tolerance, self-respect, freedom of thought, respect for others, social responsibility and the like. Schools cannot and should not be "value-free."

 

References

 

1.  Adams, The Educational Theory Macmillan &Co.

2.  Broudy, Harry, S.   Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961.

 

3.  Butler, J. Donald, Four Philosophies and Their Practice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1957.

 

4.  Cunningham, J.K., ³Problems of Philosophy, p-05.

 

5.Frank Thilly, ³A History of philosophy´, Central Publishing House, Allahabad.

 

6.John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, p-38. London, University of London Press Ltd. 1921.

 

7.John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1960, Introduction..

 

8.Rusk, R.R., ³Philosophical Basis of Education´ p-68, footnote, London, University of London Press, 1956..

 

9.The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Sixth Edition, III. Impression, 1976, p-868.  Herbart, J.F., The Science of Education. Boston : D.C.Heath & Company, 1902.10 .Weber, Christian O., Basic Philosophies of Education. New York : Holt, Rinehart andWinston, Inc., 1960

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